News article reflections

I agree what the assistant general director said in the article. Having a steady supply to meet the needs of people are vital. If not, there would be a famine and increment in death rate. Hence governing authorities should never neglect it. I hope that the problem will be solved soon, so as to cater to people's need of food, especially in the less developed countries.

Article:


UN calls for rice production boost in Asia
Posted: 09 March 2011 2112 hrs
 
 
Photos 1 of 1

   
 


BANGKOK : The UN's food agency on Wednesday called on Asian nations to help small farmers to grow more rice to prevent food shortages in the face of expanding populations.

Asia is the world's "food basket," said Hiroyuki Konuma, assistant director-general at the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation.

"It's a very important region particularly for rice. Almost two-thirds of rice in the international market comes from Asia. Thailand and Vietnam alone share nearly 50 percent of the market," he told AFP on the sidelines of a seminar in Bangkok.

About 90 percent of the world's rice is grown in Asia but much of it is consumed domestically.

The FAO estimates that world food production will have to increase by 70 percent by 2050 to meet growing demand. In developing countries, it believes output will need to double over the same period.

In order to prevent a food price crisis and to reduce poverty in Asia, "helping small scale farmers to grow more food to enhance food security is very important," Konuma said.

"The neglect of agriculture and food production by the international community and national governments must come to an end. This is a prerequisite for dealing with food price spikes," he added.

The UN agency said last week that food prices in February hit the highest level since it began monitoring them in 1990, and warned that a spike in oil costs could push them even higher.

Prices have risen sharply in many local markets, with retail prices of rice reaching record high levels in January in China and Indonesia, Konuma noted.

- AFP /ls

 

Indigenious people- Australia Aborigines

Indigenous Australians are the original inhabitants of the Australian continent and nearby islands. Indigenous Australians are distinguished as either Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islanders, who currently together make up about 2.7% of Australia's population.

The Torres Strait Islanders are indigenous to the Torres Strait Islands, which are at the northern-most tip of Queensland near Papua New Guinea. The term "Aboriginal" has traditionally been applied to indigenous inhabitants of mainland Australia, Tasmania, and some of the other adjacent islands.

The earliest definite human remains found to date are that of Mungo Man, which have been dated at about 40,000 years old, but the time of arrival of the ancestors of Indigenous Australians is a matter of debate among researchers, with estimates dating back as far as 125,000 years ago.[2]

There is great diversity among different Indigenous communities and societies in Australia, each with its own unique mixture of cultures, customs and languages. In present day Australia these groups are further divided into local communities.[3]

Although there were over 250–300 spoken languages with 600 dialects at the start of European settlement, fewer than 200 of these remain in use[4] – and all but 20 are considered to be endangered.[5] Aboriginal people today mostly speak English, with Aboriginal phrases and words being added to create Australian Aboriginal English.

The population of Indigenous Australians at the time of permanent European settlement has been estimated at between 318,000 and 750,000,[6] with the distribution being similar to that of the current Australian population, with the majority living in the south-east, centred along the Murray River.[7]

natural vegetation lesson ;coniferous forests.

coniferous forest

Temperature

-40°C to 20°C, average summer temperature is 10°C

Precipitation

300 to 900 millimeters of rain per year

Vegetation

Coniferous-evergreen trees (trees that produce cones and needles; some needles remain on the trees all year long)

Location

Canada, Europe, Asia, and the United States

Other

Coniferous forest regions have cold, long, snowy winters, and warm, humid summers; well-defined seasons, at least four to six frost-free months

Example: Beaverlodge, Alberta, Canada

Temperature graph:

Click to enlarge

Precipitation graph:

Click to enlarge

Location map:

Click to enlarge

Description

Between the tundra to the north and the deciduous forest to the south lies the large area of coniferous forest. One type of coniferous forest, the northern boreal forest, is found in 50° to 60°N latitudes. Another type, temperate coniferous forests, grows in lower latitudes of North America, Europe, and Asia, in the high elevations of mountains.

Coniferous forests consist mostly of conifers, trees that grow needles instead of leaves, and cones instead of flowers. Conifers tend to be evergreen, that is, they bear needles all year long. These adaptations help conifers survive in areas that are very cold or dry. Some of the more common conifers are spruces, pines, and firs.

Precipitation in coniferous forests varies from 300 to 900 mm annually, with some temperate coniferous forests receiving up to 2,000 mm. The amount of precipitation depends on the forest location. In the northern boreal forests, the winters are long, cold and dry, while the short summers are moderately warm and moist. In the lower latitudes, precipitation is more evenly distributed throughout the year.

workbook answer checking

i realized that the workbook is really important. it can make me revise from what i have learn and test my knowledge about the information in the text book. i also learnt how to describe the climate pattern from a climograph.

natural vegetation lesson 4 mangrove forests

reflections on the <singapore's ugly mangrove swamps> article

I do quite agree that the sungei buloh wetland reserve, the only mangrove swamp that i have ever visited, is really infested with mosquitoes. the sugei buloh wetland reserve is actually a extremely beautiful place, especially for the unique plant and animal species diversity. I remembered, when i was there 3 years ago, during on of my school's field trips organised after PSLE, I was fantasized at the unique structure of the pencil roots and i loved sitting at the extended hut built, admiring the school of birds. it is a really nice place which i would totally disagree upon what the author actually described the swamp as, "ugly" . To me, it is not ugly at all, it is just the mosquito that is such a nuisance. 

Natural vegetation lesson 2

i learn about the biome distribution around the world. Also a more in-depth features of the tropical rainforest, e.g. the evergreen trees, hardwood trees, lianas, epiphytes, adaptation of leaves, adaptation of roots, adaptation of bark and the adaptation of fruits and flowers.

climate patterns and biome distribution.

climate patterns and biome distribution:

Natural Vegetation lesson 1 11/01/11

i learnt that natural vegetation is not man made. here are some eexamples of natural vegetation:Tropical rainforest ,cold temperate coniferous forest ,tropical grassland ,hot desert vegetation , cold desert vegetation.

TROPICAL RAINFOREST:

ADDITIONAL NOTES:

1. With reference to examples, describe:
(a) The distribution of tropical rainforests
(b) The diversity of plant species in tropical rainforests(a) The distribution of tropical rainforests
• Spreads like a green belt around the Earth.
• Found between the Equator and 10° to 20° North and South of the Equator.
• Examples include Amazon basin in South America and Congo basin in Africa.
(b) The diversity of plant species in tropical rainforests
• High biodiversity.
• Over 400 species per hectare.
• Mostly hardwoods such as Meranti, Mahogany, Seraya, Ebony and Balsa.

2. Describe the structure of a tropical rainforest. 
The top canopy is between 30 – 50 m in height. The tee trunk is straight and has buttress roots. The middle layer is between 10 – 30 m. The canopy is almost continuous and many creepers and ferns can be found in this layer. The undergrowth is very sparse. The ground is always damp and dark with very little sunlight. The trees are evergreen and had many different types of species.

3. Explain how trees in tropical rainforests adapt to the hot and wet environment.
• Tropical environment refers to areas with high annual temperatures and rainfall with no dry season.
• This encourages high growth rate in natural vegetation and high decomposition of fallen leaves and branches.
• Leathery leaves with drip tips allow excess water to flow off easily.
• Trees are tall (more than 40 m) to compete for sunlight.
• Roots are shallow as they do not need to grow deep into soils to get water and minerals. • Buttress roots to support the tall trees.
• Fruits and flowers are colourful and sweet smelling to attract agents of pollination
4. With reference to examples, describe
(a) The distribution of mangrove forests.
(b) The diversity of plant species in a mangrove forests.
(a) They are found along tropical and subtropical coastal areas. Usually found along low-lying, sheltered coats with muddy and waterlogged land such as in Australia, Southeast Asia and West Africa.
(b) They have fewer species than tropical rainforests. The dominant species are generally those that have breathing roots or prop roots to enable them to survive in water logged environments. Examples include the red mangrove and white mangrove.

5. Describe the structure of a mangrove forest.
The trees can grow to a height of 2m to 40m. There are horizontal zones of mangrove species - saltwater mangrove trees grow near the coast but freshwater mangrove trees grow further inland
fewer species as as not many plants can adapt to saline water and oxygen deficient
soil. The four main species which are known as halophytes are Avicennia, Sonneratia, Rhizophora, Bruguiera.
6. Explain how trees in mangrove forests adapt to tropical and waterlogged environment.• The leathery leaves with drip tips allow water to flow off easily.
• Some have special salt glands to prevent the build up of excess salt.
• The excess salt is excluded by the roots and stored in the older leaves and discarded when the leaves wither and fall off.
• The trees have prop roots to help them anchor into the muddy ground.
• Others have aerial roots to take in oxygen from the atmosphere directly.
• The fruits of the tree are tube-like and they start to germinate while they are still on the tree. 
• They have pointed ends to anchor them to the mud when they fall into the ground so that they will not be washed away by the tides before they can take root.

7. With reference to examples, describe the distribution of tropical monsoon forests.
They are found mainly in areas from latitude 15° to just beyond the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. It is dominant in areas which experience the tropical monsoon climate, as Bangladesh, Thailand and regions such as the southern part of China.

8. Describe the structure of a tropical monsoon.
The forest has three layers: the top canopy layer consists of trees with height varying from 25m to 35m. There are lianas and epiphytes on the trees. The second layer is made up of shorter trees of about 15m tall and the third layer is the dense undergrowth of shrubs and herbs. It is less dense than the tropical rainforest.

9. Explain how trees in the tropical monsoon forest adapt to the tropical monsoon climate.
• They have fewer species than the tropical rainforest due to the dry season.
• The trees are spaced further apart and are shorter due to the lower amount of rainfall received.
• The more scattered forest results in the development of thicker undergrowth.
• They have similar Ieaves like the tropical rainforest to help drain off the excess water during the wet season.
• These deciduous trees shed their leaves during the dry season to prevent excess water loss
• They have deep roots to enable them to tap the underground water during the dry month.

10. With reference to examples, describe the distribution of temperate coniferous forests.They are found mainly between latitudes 40° and 65° and mostly in the northern hemiisphere namely in North America, in a wide belt across Canada, Siberia, northern Europe and n~ region of Asia.
11. With reference to the climate, explain the diversity of species in a temperate coniferous forest
• The climate has a relative short growing season so there are very few species coniferous type of vegetation.
• Sometimes an entire forest may have only one or two species.
• The species are mainly softwood such as spruce, pine, cedar and fir.
12. Explain how trees in temperate coniferous forests adapt to the temperate environment.• The trees are cone-shaped and have compact, down-sloping and springy branches which allow the snow to slide off easily without breaking the branches.
• The leaves are needle-like to reduce the loss of moisture due to the low rainfall. The leaves are also drought-resistant and can store water for the long cold winter when the ground is frozen.
• The trees have thick barks to protect them from the severe winter winds and summer fires.
• The fruits are contained in cones which protect them from the long harsh winter.
• Coniferous trees have shallow roots to help the trees absorb water from the melting of the top soils.

13. Describe the positive impact of forests on the environment.
• Forests are important catchment areas.
The water, soils and trees in catchment areas are renewable resources. The quality and quantity of the water in the lakes and rivers depend on the size and quality of the catchment areas.
• Forests are also important in controlling flooding in the lowlands. They intercept the rainfall and decrease the amount of surface runoff.

14. Describe the social and economic benefits a forest has on a country and its people.
• Economic benefits: timber (hardwood) is used to manufacture a variety of timber-related products. The timber trade is estimated to be worth more than US$200 billion a year. Softwoods are also used for housing, construction, furniture, flooring and production of paper.
• Social benefits: Forests are popular for outdoor activities and relaxation such as camping, fishing hiking and gaming. In less developed countries, timber is often used as fuel for keeping warm and cooking.
• Forests also produce other equally valuable products such as medicinal and cosmetic products. The cinchona plant is used to produce quinine, a medication for malaria.
15. With reference to a named location,
(a) Explain five causes of deforestation in a tropical rainforest.
(b) Describe three problems caused by deforestation.
(a) Explain five causes of deforestation in a tropical rainforest.
• Settlements: The need to build settlements for the large population. For example, Brazil is trying to resettle people from densely populated cities such as Rio de Janeiro to less densely populated parts of the country. Similarly, a transmigration policy in Indonesia resettles poor and landless Indonesians from densely populated islands such as Java and Bali to less populated islands such as Kalimantan and Sulawesi.
• Rapid Urbanisation: Rapid urbanisation requires large tracts of land to be opened up for development of infrastructure such as transport system, e.g. the Transamazonian highway across the Amazon forest. Forested lands are also cleared for building of housing, schools and many other facilities.
• Agriculture: In Brazil, farming has resulted in large-scale damage to the Amazon forest. Commercial farming, cattle ranching alone accounts for 80 per cent of the deforestation of the Amazon forest. Commercial crops such as sugar cane, coffee and more recently soya beans are grown on land once occupied by the rainforest. The collective actions of subsistence farmers have also brought much damage to the forest. These farmers are poor and they could not keep up the productivity of the land given to them by the government. Once the land is not fertile, they will go deeper into the forest to open up more lands.
• Forest Fires: Forest fires burn up thousands of square kilometres of Amazon forest every year. These fires can be started by natural or human causes. The situation is worsened when forest land is also burnt to create farmlands.
• Economic Development and Debt Repayment: Countries like Brazil need to reduce its huge national debt. As a result, Brazil needs to exploit its natural resources to pay off its debt. The world demand for forest products such as tropical hardwoods is worth US$8 billion a year. Therefore extensive commercial logging and over logging, both legal and illegal, are difficult to control in Brazil as it is a form of lucrative business. The forest is also rich in minerals. Another problematic area is the mining for oil. Over the years the mining for oil has enabled Manaus to become a city and an industrial centre. The need for cheap fuel such as hydroelectric power has seen huge areas of rainforests destroyed such as the building of the Itaipu Dam on the Parana River which has flooded and destroyed 700 sq km of rainforest.

(b) Describe three problems caused by deforestation.
• Global Warming: As forests such as the Amazon forest helps to significantly absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen into the atmosphere, the removal of trees can affect the atmospheric conditions. Deforestation can result in an increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere as less is absorbed by plants which will lead to global warming.
• Soil Deterioration: Trees help to improve the soil fertility by absorbing nutrients into the roots before these nutrients are dissolved and removed from the soil by water flowing downwards. When the trees die, they decompose and the nutrients are released back into the soils. However, deforestation takes away this storage mechanism. Thus, the topsoil is no longer protected and causes increased soil erosion to take place.
• Floods and Water Quality: When land is cleared, interception of rainfall by the trees is reduced and surface runoff increases. This will lead to flooding in the lower areas. Furthermore, the topsoil together with its decomposed materials washed off by the runoff is deposited on the river beds. Thus affecting the quality of the river water as these decomposed materials may decrease the pH level and change the living environment of the aquatic life.
• Air Pollution: Forest fires have created haze and smoke clouds which have caused airports to close and have also affected many people with respiratory illness. An example is the 1997 haze caused by the forest fires in Sumatra and Kalimantan which affected countries like Singapore and Malaysia.
• Loss of Biodiversity: Deforestation has also led to the extinction of flora and fauna, many of which have yet to be discovered. Their destruction and eventual extinction will cause a reduction in biodiversity in the long run and lessen the chances of survival of the other living organisms.
• Impact on Inhabitants: Deforestation also disrupts the culture and lifestyle of the many tribes that live in the forest. As these groups are forced to resettle in the cities, their culture, knowledge and way of life will be lost. Many of them, like the Kayapo, can no longer survive by living in the forest.
16. "The effects of deforestation are mostly environmental." Do you agree? Explain your answer.No.
Economically, the survival of shifting cultivators, hunters and gatherers will be greatly affected as they are heavily dependent on the forest for their farmlands.
Socially, deforestation has also taken away land needed for recreation and relaxation.
Educationally, humans have lost a huge laboratory to discover and do their studies on flora and fauna that have yet to be discovered.

17. With reference to examples, discuss the effectiveness of measures taken by a government to manage a tropical rainforest.
Governments have tried to promote sustainable management of the forest. This will allow the use of the forest and its resources in a way and at a rate that maintains the biodiversity, vitality and regenerative capacity of the forest.

They have done this through the following measures:
• Selective cutting: This allows the cutting of only selected single or groups of trees that have met a certain criteria. For example, only trees of a certain minimum circumference can be cut and only a certain number of trees per hectare of forest can be harvested. However, this measure requires strict law enforcement and often, it is difficult to carry out such enforcement.
• Establishment of laws and policies: Some governments have issued clearing permits and established measures against illegal loggings. In 1988, the Brazilian government withdrew its financial support and tax incentives in order to limit the clearing of forest for new cattle ranches. However, illegal logging remains a problem, accounting for 80 per cent of logging activities because of weak enforcement and corruption
• Agro-forestry: Agro-forestry is another measure to help reduce deforestation by growing trees in farms. For example, in 2005, Brazilian cedar and mahogany were grown on almost 10 000 hectares of land near Manaus. However, such a project requires a lot of capital and can only be undertaken by big companies and with government support. There is also a long period of waiting for the trees to mature before harvesting.
• Conservation: Efforts have also been made to set aside forest lands as reserves. Currently, only 4 per cent of the Amazon rainforest is protected as environmental reserves. Another 20 per cent has been set aside as tribal reserves. This is only effective if the tribal groups such as the Amazonian Indians do not sell off the land to commercial investors looking to exploit the forest.

18. Explain why it is difficult to put into practice conservation of the Amazon Basin?
The Amazon Basin is shared by many countries , such as Brazil, Venezuela, Peru, Columbia and Ecuador, and each has vested interest in conserving the Basin. It is difficult to come together to decide on a single plan to conserve the forest.
Many of the countries need to export timber to exchange for much needed revenue for the development of the countries. To stop or reduce the rate of deforestation would mean less revenue and economically, these countries would suffer.
Secondly, there is also a high demand for timber products from many developed countries. Therefore, to satisfy world wide consumer demand for timber, more forest are being destroyed.
Thirdly, in many developing countries where timber industry is important, the government authorities are usually not effective in implementing and enforcing strict rules and regulations to prevent the clearing of the forests indiscriminately. In many cases, there is widespread corruption among government officials which prevent the government from carrying out the laws effectively.
Fourthly, with increasing population, there is increasing demand for land for residential, industrial and agricultural development. As a country becomes more developed, infrastructure such as highways and bridges need to be built in order to improve accessibility among settlements.
Lastly, the practice of selective cutting which can help to minimise damages to flora and fauna in a forest is more costly to be implemented as compared to clear cutting. Hence most timber companies practice clear cutting as it is far more convenient and less costly.

Case study of deforestation in Kalimantan:
Deforestation in Kalimantan
• Rapid rate of deforestation for the last 25 years.
• Between 2000 and 2002, deforestation rose to 12 000 square kilometres a year in Kalimantan.
• The rapid deforestation is brought about by human activities like agriculture, mining and logging.

Causes of Deforestation in Kalimantan

Agricultural landuse• One cause of deforestation in Kalimantan is the increase in demand for land due to increase in agricultural activities.
• More people was moved from Kalimantan to ease overcrowded area like Java and Sumatra.
• There was also a demand of landuse from plantation companies especially for the planting of oil palms. 

Growth of settlements· As population increases in Kalimantan, more land is cleared for housing.
· More people are moving to urban settlement such as towns and cities to live and work.
· This expansion is known as urbanisation.
· Balikpapan in East Kalimantan is an example of a town that is affected by urbanisation.

Improved transport networks· Transport networks like road and railways are constructed to link settlements in Kalimantan.
· The transport network allow access to previously remote forested areas in Kalimantan.
· This has made it easier for people to destroy more areas of the rainforest.

Growth of Industries
o Heavy logging has resulted in West Kalimantan
· loosing an average of 1 656 square kilometers of forest each year.
Mining companies has caused loose soil to wash away into a nearby river. Use of chemicals has led to the poisoning of animals.

Forest fires· Forest fires caused the destruction of 23 750 square kilometres of rainforest in Kalimantan between 1997 and 1998.
· Vegetation debris such as tree stumps, branches, twigs and leaves catch fire easily during the dry season, causing forest fires.

Problems caused by deforestation
Loss in biomass
§ The Earth’s biomass refers to the combined weight of all organisms which is measured in terms of kilocalories of stored energy.
§ The reduction of biomass in Kalimantan reduces its ability to support plant and animal life.

Loss of biodiversity
· The Kalimantan rainforests are home to more than 380 bird species and 10 000 plant species.
· Due to deforestation, the biodiversity of plants and animals are reduced which leads to extinction of species.
· Question: Give an example of an endangered animal from the Kalimantan forest.

Changes in the nutrient cycle
· The removal of vegetation following deforestation results in the loss of leaf litter and affects the nutrient cycle.
· Soils are leached due to the absence of roots.
· Absorption of rainwater is reduced , the soil becomes infertile and cannot support vegetation.

Changes in quantity of water
· When trees are removed, less transpiration takes place.
· Cloud formation is reduced and there is low rainfall.
· Flood could also be triggered by deforestation.

Changes in quality of water
o When rainforests are cleared, soil is eroded and is washed away easily by rain into nearby rivers.
o This increases the sediment level of the rivers and makes the water muddy.
o The sediment changes the pH level, making the water acidic.
· Question: What happens to aquatic life when the water becomes acidic?

Air pollution
§ Huge forest fires cause dust and smoke to be suspended in the air. This results in haze.
§ Haze can cause people to suffer from health problems.
§ It will indirectly affects the tourism industry.

Managing the Rainforets in Kalimantan
· The Ministry of Forestry(MOF) - MOF issues licences to timber companies and monitor their activities.
· Community involvement - MOF involves local people such as local governments, native people and villagers.
· Sustainable management -refers to the careful use of resources, such as forests to allow people to continue using the resources in future.
Four Main Policies of MOFAfforestation and reforestation
o Afforestation - afforestation refers to the planting of trees on areas that were not covered with forests.
o Effectiveness, success and limitations of measures - significant restorations of forests have been made possible. rates of which forests are restored are slower than rates at which they are cleared.

Controlled logging
· Controlled logging - controlled logging involves careful management of forests that are being logged.
· Effectiveness, success and limitations of measures - selective cutting minimises soil erosion. However it is difficult to monitor logging and detect illegal logging activities. A significant variety of plant species could be damaged in the process.
Conservation
§ Conservation refers to the careful use of resources to protect forests from destruction. For example forests could be set aside as nature reserves.
§ Effectiveness, success and limitations of measures - Betung Kerihun Nature Reserve is the largest reserve in West Kalimantan. However Illegal logging activities are difficult to monitor.


Controlling forest fires
· Forest fires - Indonesian government has implemented a policy that makes it illegal to clear forests by burning. Campaigns to discourage the local people from using fire to clear forests for farmland.
· Effectiveness, success and limitations of measures - some plantation companies continue to burn forests because it is the cheapest way to clear land.

Our Role in Forest Conservation
• Simple actions such as making use of both sides of a piece of paper can help to reduce wastage of forest resources.
• To help reduce deforestation in other countries, we can buy furniture made of timber from sustainably managed forests.

notes are adapted from http://olevelgeog.blogspot.com